@article{,

title = {Whale watching in Sri Lanka: Perceptions of sustainability},

author = {Buultjens, Jeremy,Ratnayke, Iraj,Gnanapala, Athula},

issn = {2211-9736},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

journal = {Tourism Management Perspectives},

volume = {18},

number = {62},

pages = {125-133},

abstract = {Whale watching creates an economic value for whales beyond consumption and therefore assists in the conservation of the species. However sustainable management is needed to avoid deleterious impacts on the whales and the industry. This paper uses a range of qualitative methods to examine the characteristics, management and perceived sustainability of the relatively newly established whale watching industry in Sri Lanka. It is clear that the laissez faire development of the industry has resulted in some poor conservation outcomes for the

whales as well as variable tourist experiences. The Sri Lankan government has introduced legislated regulations aimed at managing the industry however it must ensure adequate human and financial resources are provided to ensure the effective implementation of the regulations and therefore the sustainability of the industry.},

keywords = {Arabian Sea, impact, management, regulations, Sri Lanka, Sustainability, Whale watching},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{,

title = {Effects of Tour Boats on Dolphin Activity Examined with Sensitivity Analysis of Markov Chains},

author = {Dans, Silvana Laura,Degrati, Mariana,Pedraza, Susana NoemÍ,Crespo, Enrique Alberto},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01844.x},

issn = {1523-1739},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

journal = {Conservation Biology},

volume = {26},

number = {356},

pages = {708-716},

publisher = {Blackwell Publishing Inc},

abstract = {In Patagonia, Argentina, watching dolphins, especially dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), is a new tourist activity. Feeding time decreases and time to return to feeding after feeding is abandoned and time it takes a group of dolphins to feed increase in the presence of boats. Such effects on feeding behavior may exert energetic costs on dolphins and thus reduce an individual's survival and reproductive capacity or maybe associated with shifts in distribution. We sought to predict which behavioral changes modify the activity pattern of dolphins the most. We modeled behavioral sequences of dusky dolphins with Markov chains. We calculated transition probabilities from one activity to another and arranged them in a stochastic matrix model. The proportion of time dolphins dedicated to a given activity (activity budget) and the time it took a dolphin to resume that activity after it had been abandoned (recurrence time) were calculated. We used a sensitivity analysis of Markov chains to calculate the sensitivity of the time budget and the activity-resumption time to changes in behavioral transition probabilities. Feeding-time budget was most sensitive to changes in the probability of dolphins switching from traveling to feeding behavior and of maintaining feeding behavior. Thus, an increase in these probabilities would be associated with the largest reduction in the time dedicated to feeding. A reduction in the probability of changing from traveling to feeding would also be associated with the largest increases in the time it takes dolphins to resume feeding. To approach dolphins when they are traveling would not affect behavior less because presence of the boat may keep dolphins from returning to feeding. Our results may help operators of dolphin-watching vessels minimize negative effects on dolphins.

Resumen: La observación de delfines, especialmente Lagenorhynchus obscurus, es una actividad turística nueva en Patagonia, Argentina. En presencia de barcos, el tiempo de alimentación disminuye y el tiempo para volver a alimentarse después de abandonar la alimentación y el tiempo que toma un grupo de delfines para alimentarse aumentan. Tales efectos sobre la conducta de alimentación puede implicar costos energéticos en los delfines y por lo tanto reducir la supervivencia y la capacidad reproductiva de un individuo o quizá asociarse con cambios en la distribución. Tratamos de predecir los cambios conductuales que más modifican el patrón de actividad de los delfines. Modelamos secuencias conductuales de delfines mediante cadenas de Markov. Calculamos las probabilidades de transición de una actividad a otra y las acomodamos en un modelo matricial estocástico. Calculamos la proporción de tiempo que los delfines dedicaron a una actividad determinada (presupuesto de actividad) y el tiempo que le llevó a un delfín reanudar esa actividad después de abandonarla (tiempo de recurrencia). Utilizamos un análisis de sensibilidad de cadenas de Markov para calcular la sensibilidad del presupuesto de tiempo y el tiempo de reanudación de la actividad a los cambios de las probabilidades de transición conductual. El presupuesto de tiempo para alimentación fue más sensible a los cambios en la probabilidad de que los delfines cambien de conducta de traslado a conducta de alimentación y de que mantengan la conducta de alimentación. Por lo tanto, un incremento en esas probabilidades pudiera ser asociada con la mayor reducción en el tiempo dedicado a la alimentación. Una reducción en la probabilidad de cambiar de traslado a alimentación también estaría asociada con los mayores incrementos en el tiempo que toman los delfines para reanudar la alimentación. Acercarse a los delfines cuando se están trasladando no afectaría menos su conducta porque la presencia del barco puede evitar que los delfines regresen a alimentarse. Nuestros resultados pueden ayudar a que los operadores de embarcaciones para observación de delfines minimicen los efectos negativos sobre los delfines.},

keywords = {activity budget, Argentina, disturbance, dolphin watching, dusky dolphins, impact, Lagenorhynchus obscurus, management, Patagonia, sensitivity analysis, stochastic matrix models, Threats, tourism, Whale watching},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{,

title = {Dolphin Watching in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman: Tourist Perceptions and Actual Current Practice},

author = {Ponnampalam, Louisa S.},

url = {http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/tme/2011/00000007/00000002/art00003,https://doi.org/10.3727/154427311X13038402065866},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

journal = {Tourism in Marine Environments},

volume = {7},

number = {435},

pages = {81-93},

abstract = {Tourists who went dolphin watching in Muscat between December 2006 and June 2007 were asked to complete a questionnaire gauging the overall quality of their trips based on four main aspects: safety, educational value, perception of the boat driver's behavior, and overall satisfaction. Results showed that most tourists were satisfied with their dolphin-watching trip and that the majority felt that the boat drivers maintained a good distance between the boat and the dolphins, yet most also expressed the view that official guidelines should be established and implemented. However, awareness levels of tourists regarding the existence of dolphin-watching guidelines were low and tourist perceptions of their trips contrasted with observed practices, which reveal the current industry standards in Muscat to be lacking in many respects. The contrast is discussed and recommendations made for raising industry standards.},

keywords = {disturbance, dolphin watching, guidelines, impact, interview Survey, management, Oman, Perception, Questionnaire, Sea of Oman, Sultanate of Oman, tourism, Whale watching},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{,

title = {Nitrogen production in the northern Arabian Sea during the Spring Intermonsoon and Southwest Monsoon seasons},

author = {Sambrotto,R.N.},

year  = {2001},

date = {2001-01-01},

journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part II},

volume = {48},

number = {470},

pages = {1173-1198},

abstract = {Planktonic nitrogen productivity and regeneration were measured with 15NO3, 15NH4 and 15N-urea tracers during the Spring Intermonsoon (SI) and Southwest Monsoon (SWM) seasons in the northern Arabian Sea from the Omani coast southeast to 10§N. On an areal basis, new (nitrate) productivity and the nitrogen f-ratio varied from 0.1 to 13 mmol m-2 d-1 and 0.03 to 0.4, respectively. Including urea in total nitrogen uptake lowered the f-ratio by 29% on average for individual samples, and during the SI was most important in offshore regions. The lowest nitrate productivity rates also were measured in offshore regions during the SI, where low, but detectable, nitrate levels limited uptake. The onset of the SWM was associated with an order of magnitude increase in nitrate uptake seaward of the Findlater Jet as compared to the SI. Apparently, the positive effect of the increased availability of nitrate and the Ekman transport of established phytoplankton populations to the region more than offset the degraded light conditions caused by the deep (>80 m) mixed layers. Despite the increases in offshore nitrate uptake, both a budget of surface particulate material and 234Th POC flux estimates indicated that the mid- SWM reduced the efficiency of material export from surface waters and disrupted the linkage between new production and export that was evident in the SI. In the mid-SWM, new production mainly accumulated in deeply mixed surface waters offshore, and may be responsible for the well documented lag between the onset of the SWM and export. In the coastal upwelling region, new production rates were significantly greater during the SWM only near filaments of coastal water advected offshore. Ammonium regeneration rates and concentrations increased significantly in coastal regions during the SWM, and nitrification likely was a significant sink for some of the ammonium produced there. The transport of some of the remainder of this reduced nitrogen offshore would fuel nitrogen production without having an impact on local respiration. This is one of several factors that may confound the comparison of new and net production in coastal regions during the early SWM.  },

keywords = {Arabian Sea, budget, impact, population, populations, productivity, respiration, Upwelling},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{,

title = {The Northeast Monsoon's impact on mixing, phytoplankton biomass and nutrient cycling in the Arabian Sea},

author = {Wiggert,J.D.,Jones,B.H.,Dickey,T.D.,Brink,K.H.,Weller,R.A.,Marra,J.,Codispoti,L.A.},

year  = {2000},

date = {2000-01-01},

journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part II},

volume = {47},

number = {254},

pages = {1353-1385},

abstract = {In the northern Arabian Sea, atmospheric conditions during the Northeast (winter) Monsoon lead to deep convective mixing. Due to the proximity of the permanent pycnocline to the sea surface, this mixing does not penetrate below 125 m. However, a strong nitracline is also present and the deep convection results in significant nitrate flux into the surface waters. This leads to nitrate concentrations over the upper 100 m that exceed 4 æM toward the end of the monsoon. During the 1994/1995 US JGOFS/Arabian Sea expedition, the mean areal gross primary production over two successive Northeast Monsoons was determined to be 1.35 gC/m2/d. Thus, despite the deep penetrative convection, high rates of primary productivity were maintained. An interdisciplinary model was developed to elucidate the biogeochemical processes involved in supporting the elevated productivity. This model consisted of a 1-D mixed-layer model coupled to a set of equations that tracked phytoplankton growth and the concentration of the two major nutrients (nitrate and ammonium). Zooplankton grazing was parameterized by a rate constant determined by shipboard experiments. Model boundary conditions consist of meteorological time-series measured from the surface buoy that was part of the ONR Arabian Sea Experiment's central mooring. Our numerical experiments show that elevated surface evaporation, and the associated salinization of the mixed layer, strongly contributes to the frequency and penetration depth of the observed convective mixing. Cooler surface temperatures, increased nitrate entrainment, reduced water column stratification, and lower near-surface chlorophyll a concentrations all result from this enhanced mixing. The model also captured a dependence on regenerated nitrogen observed in nutrient uptake experiments performed during the Northeast Monsoon. Our numerical experiments also indicate that variability in mean pycnocline depth causes up to a 25% reduction in areal chlorophyll a concentration. We hypothesize that such shifts in pycnocline depth may contribute to the interannual variations in primary production and surface chlorophyll a concentration that have been previously observed in this region.},

keywords = {Arabian Sea, chlorophyll, depth, growth, impact, lead, productivity, surface temperature, temperature, zooplankton},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{,

title = {Picophytoplankton dynamics and production in the Arabian Sea during the 1995 Southwest Monsoon},

author = {Brown,S.L.,Landry,M.R.,Barber,R.T.,Campbell,L.,Garrison,D.L.,Gowing,M.M.},

year  = {1999},

date = {1999-01-01},

journal = {Deep-Sea Research Part II},

volume = {46},

number = {56},

pages = {1745-1768},

abstract = {Phytoplankton community structure is expected to shift to larger cells (e.g., diatoms) with monsoonal forcing in the Arabian Sea, but recent studies suggest that small primary producers remain active and important, even in areas strongly influenced by coastal upwelling. To better understand the role of smaller phytoplankton in such systems, we investigated growth and grazing rates of picophytoplankton populations and their contributions to phytoplankton community biomass and primary productivity during the 1995 Southwest Monsoon (August-September). Environmental conditions at six study stations varied broadly from openocean oligotrophic to coastal eutrophic, with mixed-layer nitrate and chlorophyll concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 11.5 æM NO3 and 0.16 to 1.5 æg Chl a. Picophytoplankton comprised up to 92% of phytoplankton carbon at the oceanic stations, 35% in the diatom dominated coastal zone, and 26% in a declining Phaeocystis bloom. Concurrent in situ dilution and 14C-uptake experiments gave comparable ranges of community growth rates (0.53-1.05 d-1 and 0.44-1.17 d-1, to the 1% light level), but uncertainties in C:Chl a confounded agreement at individual stations. Microzooplankton grazing utilized 81% of community phytoplankton growth at the oligotrophic stations and 54% at high-nutrient coastal stations. Prochlorococcus (PRO) was present at two oligotrophic stations, where its maximum growth approached 1.4 d-1 (two doublings per day) and depth-integrated growth varied from 0.2 to 0.8 d-1. Synechococcus (SYN) growth ranged from 0.5 to 1.1 d-1 at offshore stations and 0.6 to 0.7 d-1 at coastal sites. Except for the most oligotrophic stations, growth rates of picoeukaryotic algae (PEUK) exceeded PRO and SYN, reaching 1.3 d-1 offshore and decreasing to 0.8 d-1 at the most coastal station. Microzooplankton grazing impact averaged 90, 70, and 86% of growth for PRO, SYN, and PEUK, respectively. Picoplankton as a group accounted for 64% of estimated gross carbon production for all stations, and 50% at highnutrient, upwelling stations. Prokaryotes (PRO and SYN) contributed disproportionately to production relative to biomass at the most oligotrophic station, while PEUK were more important at the coastal stations. Even during intense monsoonal forcing in the Arabian Sea, picoeukaryotic algae appear to account for a large portion of primary production in the coastal upwelling regions, supporting an active community of protistan grazers and a high rate of carbon cycling in these areas.  },

keywords = {Arabian Sea, chlorophyll, growth, impact, Oceanic, population, populations, productivity, Upwelling},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}